Research for this study was carried out through fieldwork in pastoral and farming communities in the borderlands of northern Nigeria – in pastoral camps and in locations along the routes that herders follow during transhumance and migration. Fieldwork was conducted at intervals between 2020 and 2023, beginning with scoping studies and then progressing to longer periods in the field that were spent visiting pastoral camps and villages and doing individual and group interviews. Most of the fieldwork was carried out between September 2021 and the end of 2022, with a period of prolonged fieldwork between August and December 2022. In May 2023, community and academic workshops were held in Yola and Maiduguri – the capitals of Adamawa and Borno States respectively, both borderland states in northern Nigeria – alongside further interviews to present and gain feedback on research findings.

Map of Nigeria with research sites marked in orange

The work focused on selected areas of northern Nigeria’s borderlands, particularly along sections of the Nigeria–Niger and Nigeria–Cameroon borders. In the case of the Nigeria–Niger border, field research only took place in northern Nigeria. Research took place on both sides of the border between northern Nigeria and Cameroon. Fieldwork was carried out in Adamawa, Taraba, Bauchi, Gombe, and Borno States in north-east Nigeria, Jigawa and Kano States in north-west Nigeria, and the Adamaoua, East, and North regions of Cameroon. Research sites included border areas, but also areas that pastoralists migrate to or pass through having crossed borders. Some of the field sites had experienced violent conflict and violent crimes such as kidnapping for ransom, while other areas were more peaceful. Research locations were selected along transhumance corridors, in areas that pastoralists migrate to or from, and in places where there was a record of conflict between pastoralists and farmers, alongside considerations related to risk and access.

Fieldwork was supplemented by analysis of satellite data, the purpose of which was to observe changes in land use and land cover over time, with a focus on changes to the cultivated land area and to available pastoral land. The satellite imagery showed changes in vegetation cover over periods of years, and was complemented by ground-level observations to check and verify the interpretation of the satellite data and to record the reasons for land-use change, principally by making enquiries among local people. The academic seminars at the University of Maiduguri and at Modibbo Adama University, Yola, were important for gaining feedback on the satellite data and on other aspects of the research.

Some of the satellite data used initially had limitations in the classification of vegetation cover, as much depends on the resolution of the imagery. If different types of vegetation are misclassified, such as ‘shrubland’ and ‘cropland’, it changes the results. This points to the importance of field data on land cover to check and refine satellite data. The findings of the analysis of changes in cropping intensity based on the interpretation of satellite imagery over a six-year period for Jigawa State were crosschecked using ground-truth assessments and were found to be broadly consistent with the situation on the ground. Satellite imagery was also analysed for the other field sites in Nigeria and Cameroon for this study, but only the Jigawa images are included in this case study because those were the best resolved.

Map of Cameroon with research sites marked in orange

The study was carried out by a team of researchers with longstanding experience in the region, including researchers from pastoral communities.¹ Where possible, ethnographic methods were used, whereby researchers stayed with families or communities in the areas among communities being studied. Fieldwork included direct observation, conversations, and a combination of key informant interviews and focus group discussions, held in the languages of the respondents. Research participants were primarily nomadic and transhumant pastoralists, local farmers cultivating a range of crops, as well as representatives from government, traditional leaders, and security organisations.

Men and women were interviewed, including pastoral women across the field sites and of different ages. A gender balance in terms of the ratio of male and female respondents was not achieved, although it was more even in some locations than others. Pastoral youths (Fulfulde: sukaaBe) were among respondents and gave important insights as they are the main group who carry out day to day herding. However, they were underrepresented compared to higher age sets who tend to represent their families and camps in discussions and who include community leaders (Ardo’en). Future research could usefully focus more specifically on pastoral youth – male and female.

Footnotes

¹ Fieldwork for this study built on several years of prior research by the same researchers on pastoral issues and farmer-herder relations. This study enabled research in new field sites, as well as follow-up work in existing ones. The specific focus on the cross-border aspects of pastoralism was also new, in relation to environmental change, peace and conflict.